All you want to know about AI in India

 

AI has steadily moved from laboratories into the heart of our daily experiences powering healthc are diagnostic s, enabling smart agriculture, personalising education, and streamlining governance. As its cross-sectoral influence continues to grow, the need for preparedness is no longer optional; it is essential. Strengthening our technological foundations is not just about meeting today’s demands, but about equipping future generations to thrive in an AI-driven world. In this pursuit, technological sovereignty, the ability to independently develop, deploy, and regulate AI systems has emerged as a critical national priority. For India, this means securing its digital infrastructure, protecting citizen data, and reducing reliance on foreign technologies to ensure long-term resilience and strategic autonomy. In line with this, the Government of India has launched the IndiaAI Mission, an initiative to ensure that the country not only keeps pace with global advancements, but leads with inclusive, ethical, and context-aware AI solutions. Recognising the vast linguistic and cultural diversity of the nation, the mission prioritises the development of AI tools that are responsive to native tongues and respectful of local norms. 

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China’s Many Faces of FRAND Mark A. Cohen* Asia Society of Northern California

 China has become a major destination for resolution of disputes over the licensing of patents incorporated into global technical standards. These patents are generally required to be licensed on “FRAND” terms. FRAND is an English language acronym that consists of four separate components: (A) “fair”, (B) “reasonable”, (C) “and” (D) “non-discriminatory.” Chinese courts have typically applied these four admittedly vague components in their Chinese translations, rather than their native English. These translations have not been standardised across cases and policy documents. There are often multiple translation variants in an individual judicial decision with at least 120 potential variant translations of the four FRAND components. In addition, there are three significant grammatical variants, plus various combinations of the four components, which brings a total of potential variants used by Chinese courts to over 500. Not all these variants impose new meanings of FRAND. In fact, the most significant of the variant translations is grammatical and not based on a semantic difference. It entails removing a Chinese term for “and” and utilising the Chinese enumerative comma or dunhao, which looks like a backwards comma, to replace the Western comma. According to relevant Chinese national standards and practice, the use of the dunhao means “pause.” It can mean “and” or “or.” It potentially fragments the integrated concept of “FRAND” into its separate components. In this dominant translation variant, FRAND means “fair and/or reasonable and/or non-discriminatory.” It might more appropriately be called “FRND”. 

The Chinese courts’ use of FRND maximises judicial discretion by facilitating new combinations of individual FRAND components, thereby selectively ignoring certain FRAND components, and by introducing new terms into FRAND. These translations have also worked to the disadvantage of the foreign party by imposing preferential treatment for a Chinese licensee or a rate that is equal to the lowest rate charged by the licensee, regardless of the costs and challenges faced by the foreign licensor in negotiating and litigating with its Chinese counterpart. While foreign courts and companies have observed that it is difficult to obtain fair remuneration for standards-essential patents (“SEPS”) licensed to China, these varied translated “faces of FRAND” are not observable to readers who rely solely on English translations. The English translations that I have reviewed have uniformly declined to address inconsistent translations from English into Chinese and back into English. These Chinese translations are also inconsistent with the translations into Chinese of international organisations and the approaches to translating FRAND’s vague components that have been undertaken by many foreign countries and economies. The effect of these mistranslations is to not merely to uniquely translate FRAND in judicial decision making, but, in certain instances, to suggest or impose new meanings based on Chinese law upon FRAND. These new Chinese meanings also serve to facilitate transplanting FRAND into new areas of the law and diplomacy where the Chinese government typically has expressed an interest in managing private property rights to serve governmental interests.

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